Additional Documents
All terms appearing in BOLD are included in the glossary. The tale of the 47 rônin (masterless samurai) is perhaps the most celebrated discussion of loyalty and warrior ethics in Japanese history. The story, which has been retold countless times in the centuries since it was first recounted in 1703, provides an excellent opportunity to familiarize students with the history and culture of early modern Japan while also introducing them to the idea that interpretations of past events and historical memory change over time. The incident at the beginning of the story took place on a spring morning in 1701 at the castle of the Tokugawa Shogun, located in the capital of Edo (present-day Tokyo ). Officials at the castle, led by the feudal lord ASANO Naganori (1665-1701), daimyo of the Akô domain in western Honshû, were ushering envoys from the imperial court in Kyoto through a series of diplomatic rituals at the Shogun’s court. Despite the attention given to the episode by contemporary observers and later commentators, the exact details of the incident itself remain somewhat murky, providing storytellers and historians alike with ample opportunity for speculation. What we do know is that on the last day of the envoys’ visit, Asano drew his sword in the corridors of the Shogun’s castle, a capital offense, and attempted to cut down his fellow samurai KIRA Yoshinaka (1641-1703), a senior government official and direct retainer of the Shogun. The cause of Asano’s anger is unclear. We only know from the testimony of a guard that Asano yelled, “Do you remember your recent affront!?” (Kono aida no ikon oboetaru ka) before slashing Kira. Asano wounded Kira only slightly on the shoulder and forehead before being restrained and taken into custody. Judgment was passed down quickly, and Asano was ordered to death by seppuku (ritual suicide) the same day for the high crime of drawing his sword within the Shogun’s castle. His domain was confiscated and his samurai retainers released from service and set adrift as rônin. Kira was praised for his restraint and escaped punishment, a situation that many of the Akô rônin found unacceptable. Forty-seven of Asano's former retainers vowed revenge, and twenty-two months later 46 of them declared that they were fulfilling their lord’s original intention and attacked the Edo mansion of Kira, decapitating him. The rônin — despite the fact that one of them dropped out just before the attack they have always been known as the “47 rônin” — then marched across the capital carrying Kira’s head to the temple of Sengakuji, where they presented their gruesome offering to their deceased lord’s grave. Government officials debated how to respond for a month and a half before finally ordering the 46 rônin to death by seppuku for the crimes of conspiracy and disturbing the peace in Edo , an honorable death because the men were allowed to take their own lives rather than being executed like common criminals. The rônin were buried in graves near their lord at Sengakuji, where to this day they continue to be worshiped as the “Righteous Samurai of Akô”. The materials in this unit encourage students to think critically about fundamental moral and metaphysical issues from a variety of perspectives that are still largely absent from the undergraduate study of philosophy. Issues of concern include: Historical Background and Interpretive Context
Japan underwent a series of broad-based changes at the turn of the seventeenth century. After more than a hundred years of civil war, the Tokugawa military clan pacified 200-odd domains by establishing a central government known as the bakufu in 1603. In an effort to institute order, the government then attempted to freeze society into a hierarchical order of four hereditary classes: samurai, peasants, artisans, and merchants. At the top, the samurai had a monopoly on political and military power as well as the legitimate use of force. Below them, the other classes had no political rights, though in time merchants in particular would come to possess significant economic power. As civil war became a distant memory, the military class of samurai underwent a process of demilitarization and was transformed into a class of bureaucrats serving the central government and regional domains. A new ethic of righteousness and benevolence inspired by neo-Confucian philosophy as well as a new emphasis on literacy emerged. Neo-Confucianism normalized the new administrative functions of samurai and legitimated their authority over the other social classes through a complex system that sought to render the newly founded hierarchical order both natural and right. This process of demilitarization and social transformation — whereby social order was no longer produced by the direct coercive control of a military aristocracy by virtue of its martial power, but rather through indirect cultural mechanisms instituted by an educated elite that distinguished itself through intellectual superiority –was gradual, eventually taking root throughout the Japanese archipelago. It was not a bloodless process. Many violent clashes erupted as samurai struggled to negotiate between the enduring value placed on honor and martial prowess, on the one hand, and the social demands of a socio-economic system that endorsed order and cultural achievement, on the other. This clash between values and practice was one of the primary contradictions faced by the bakufu and throughout Tokugawa culture more broadly. The story of the 47 rônin provides us with one way to explore its depths. Themes and Goals
The contradictions that a samurai faced at the beginning of the eighteenth century concerned the very definition of his class. In the political context of the medieval feudalism of the previous centuries, the samurai distinguished himself through his abilities on the battlefield and loyalty to his lord. In the pacified world of Tokugawa Japan, however, he found his role redefined by the new government and its ideologues as protector and administrator of the legal order. The state urged the samurai to replace the protection of honor with the defense of law and order, and loyalty to one’s immediate lord with loyalty to the Tokugawa government. (For example, see Ogyû Sorai’s “Essay on the Forty-Seven Samurai”, pp. 447-448 in Sources of Japanese Tradition, Volume Two: 1600 to 2000 . Second Edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.) At the beginning of the eighteenth century, this process was not yet fully realized. The story of the 47 rônin demonstrates that at the same time that provincial samurai like Lord Asano and his retainers were proudly emphasizing a military ethics of honor and loyalty, “civilized” samurai like Lord Kira had adapted to court life, etiquette, and respect for the law. It might be argued that the contradictory process of social pacification illustrated here is characteristic of early modern societies more broadly. As new early modern states emerged in the context of changing economic circumstances, they began to lay exclusive claim to the legitimate use of force, a process that required members of the elite to reconsider their loyalties as they struggled to secure a place in the new order. The tale illustrates how slowly and erratically the new ethics spread. As the assigned readings show, the majority of scholars that engaged in the debate on the rônin’s vendetta praised their loyalty to their lord. Such loyalty was precisely the kind of behavior, commentators argued, that served to distinguish the samurai from the common people arrayed below them in the social hierarchy. At the popular level, the deeds of the 47 rônin were narrated in theater performances, novels, illustrations, and oral tales which emphasized heroism and individual action over impropriety and service to the state. The puppet theater play, Chûshingura: The Treasury of the Loyal Retainers (KEENE, Donald, ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971), from 1748 is the best-known example of this dynamic. In fact, the term “Chûshingura,” taken from this famous work has now become an umbrella term for the historical incident itself as well as all its numerous re-presentations in various media. Suggestions for ways to approach the story Note: These suggestions are arranged in order of increasing complexity, moving from more concrete concerns to more theoretical approaches.
Audiences and Uses
The story of the 47 rônin will help students in a Japanese or East Asian history course understand the nature of Japanese society in the Tokugawa period. The unit may also be useful in a wide variety of other courses, including but not limited to:
Instructor Readings
*** Most important
* BITÔ, Masahide. “The Akô Incident, 1701-1703.” Monumenta Nipponica 58:2 (Summer 2003).
* SMITH, Henry D., II. “Rethinking the Story of the 47 Rônin: Chûshingura in the 1980s.” Available online at http://www.columbia.edu/~hds2/47ronin.htm
On The Confucian Debate about the Incident ** MCMULLEN, James. “Confucian Perspectives on the Akô Revenge: Law and Moral Agency.” Monumenta Nipponica 58:3 (Fall 2003).
On the Story of the 47 Rônin in Popular Imagination and Japanese History
Student Readings and Activities
Two options for student readings are presented: one for a single class session or week and the other for two or more classes. Ideally, the instructor should provide a brief introduction to the story and its historical context before assigning the first set of readings. The instructor could also distribute copies of this short (just over one page) introduction: HANE, Mikiso. “Forty-Seven Rônin Incident.” In Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1983-2002. Available online for subscribers (many universities) at http://www.ency-japan.com. *** Most important Student Readings : One Week/Class Session Secondary Source: Select ONE of the following two articles. If the instructor wants to focus only on the historical incidents, Ikegami’s piece is better. If he or she plans to spend time on the impact of the affair on Japanese culture, Smith’s article is more comprehensive. *** IKEGAMI, Eiko. “The Vendetta of the Forty-Seven Samurai.” Chapter 11 of The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individualism and the Making of Modern Japan. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995. Pages 223-240.
OR: *** SMITH, Henry D., II. “The Capacity of Chûshingura.” Monumenta Nipponica 58:1 (Spring 2003), pp. 1-42.
Primary Sources: *** “Manifesto of the Retainers of ASANO Takumi.” In Akô Gishi Jiten. Kobe: Akô Gishi Jiten Kankôkai, 1972. Translated by Federico Marcon. download as PDF doc
*** Sources of Japanese Tradition, Volume Two: 1600 to 2000 . Ed. by Wm. Theodore DE BARY, Carol GLUCK, and Arthur E. TIEDEMANN . Second Edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005. Chapter 31: “The Way of the Warrior II”, pp. 437-458.
If the instructor plans to spend some time on the impact of the historical incident on Japanese culture, he or she could also assign: *** TAKEDA Izumo, MIYOSHI Shôraku, and NAMIKI Sôsuke. Translated by Donald KEENE. Chûshingura: The Treasury of Loyal Retainers. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971: Acts 3 (pp.47-64) and 4 (pp. 65-76).
Student Activity: Week/Session One After about 30 minutes of discussion, divide the class into two groups: one is to play the role of the defense of the rônin, and the other the role of the prosecution. Guide the class in concentrating on the major themes of honor, loyalty, and law. The goal of the exercise is to have the students highlight the diverging conceptions of loyalty (to whom? the lord? the government?) and honor. Readings : Week/Session One Secondary Source: *** IKEGAMI, Eiko. “The Vendetta of the Forty-Seven Samurai.” Chapter 11 of The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individualism and the Making of Modern Japan. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995. Pages 223-240.
Primary Sources: *** “Manifesto of the Retainers of ASANO Takumi.” In Akô Gishi Jiten. Kobe: Akô Gishi Jiten Kankôkai, 1972. Translated by Federico Marcon. download as PDF doc
*** Sources of Japanese Tradition, Volume Two: 1600 to 2000 . Ed. by Wm. Theodore DE BARY, Carol GLUCK, and Arthur E. TIEDEMANN . Second Edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005. Chapter 31: “The Way of the Warrior II”, pp. 437-458.
The following contextual readings are optional, but may be helpful in providing students with information on the social history of samurai in Japan. * IKEGAMI, Eiko. “The Coming of the Samurai” and “Vassalage and Honor,” and “Honor or Order.” Chapters 2, 3, and 10 in The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individualism and the Making of Modern Japan. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995. Pages 47-77, 78-94, 197-222. * SATO, Hiroaki. “The Duel,” “The Meaning of Revenge,” “Let Your Little Kid Be Stabbed,” and “The Forty-Seven Samurai: Arguments.” In Legends of the Samurai. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 1995. Pages 19-21, 47-51, 71-79, 88-90, and 322-328. Student Activity: Week/Session One After about 30 minutes of discussion, divide the class into two groups: one is to play the role of the defense of the rônin, and the other the role of the prosecution. Guide the class in concentrating on the major themes of honor, loyalty, and law. The goal of the exercise is to have the students highlight the diverging conceptions of loyalty (to whom? the lord? the government?) and honor. Week/Session Two and Beyond The second week aims at introducing the students to the successive retellings of the story in Japanese history. *** SMITH, Henry D., II. “The Capacity of Chûshingura.” Monumenta Nipponica 58:1 (Spring 2003), pp. 1-42.
*** TAKEDA Izumo, MIYOSHI Shôraku, and NAMIKI Sôsuke. Translated by Donald KEENE. Chûshingura: The Treasury of Loyal Retainers. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971: Acts 3 (pp.47-64) and 4 (pp. 65-76).
** MARCON, Federico, ed. “The Story of the Loyal Samurai of Akô, by MOTOORI Norinaga.” Monumenta Nipponica 58:4 (Winter 2003).
* MARCON, Federico and Henry D. SMITH II. “A Chûshingura Palimpsest: Young MOTOORI Norinaga Hears the Story of the Akô Rônin from a Buddhist Priest.” Monumenta Nipponica 58:4 (Winter 2003).
* MUELLER, Jacqueline. “A Chronicle of Great Peace Played Out on a Chessboard: CHIKAMATSU Monzaemon’s Goban Taiheiki.” HJAS 46:1 (June 1986), pp. 221-267.
The following short pieces are some examples of the continuing importance of the story in modern Japan. Use Smith’s “The Capacity of Chûshingura ” (assigned above) as the secondary source of reference.
** The Forty-Seven Rônin (Genroku Chûshingura). Directed by MIZOGUCHI Kenji, 1941-2. 222 minutes. In Japanese with English subtitles. Available on DVD and VHS.
Student Activity: Week/Session Two Discussion Questions:
Further Reading
* BRANDON, James. “The Theft of Chûshingura: or The Great Kabuki Caper.” In Chûshingura: Studies in Kabuki and the Puppet Theater. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1982. Pages 111-154. ** DAVIS, Darrell William. “Genroku Chûshingura.” Chapter 6 in Picturing Japaneseness: Monumental Style, National Identity, Japanese Film. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. Pages 131-180. {in case of the projection of the movie for those students interested} * KEENE, Donald. “Variation on a Theme: Chûshingura.” In James Brandon, ed., Chûshingura: Studies in Kabuki and the Puppet Theater. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1982. Pages 1-13. * NITOBE, Inazo. Bushido, The Soul of Japan: An Exposition of Japanese Thought (originally published Tokyo, 1899), chs. 1 (“Bushido as an Ethical System”), 15 (“The Influence of Bushido”), and 16 (“Is Bushido Still Alive?). * POWELL, Brian. “The Samurai Ethic in Mayama Seika’s Genroku Chûshingura.” Modern Asian Studies 18:4 (1984), pp. 725-45. ** SATO, Hiroaki. Legends of the Samurai. (The Overlook Press, 1995): “The Forty-Seven Samurai: Arguments,” pp. 322-38. |
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