CourseOutline

1. Introduction to Animal Biology (CRM: Chapters 1, 32-34, 40)

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I. Characteristics of Animals (pages 589-590)

A. Cellular Characteristics

B. Organismal Characteristics

II. Animal Diversity: Body Plans and Complexity (pages 590-595, 778-784, 786-788)

A. Cladograms

1. Definition

2. Organizing animal diversity

B. Subkingdoms of Animals

1. Parazoa

2. Eumetazoa

C. Branches of the Subkingdom Eumetazoa

1. Body symmetry

2. Tissue layers

D. Body Cavities in the Branch Bilateria

1. Acoelomate animals

2. Pseudocoelomate animals

3. Coelomate animals

2. Nutrients and Energy Acquisition (CRM: Chapter 41)

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I. Heterotrophy: A Functional View (pages 792-796)

A. Nutrient and Energy Needs

1. The metabolism equation

2. Energy for metabolism

3. Bulk nutrients versus trace nutrients

B. Steps in Energy and Nutrient Acquisition

1. Food acquisition

2. Mechanical processing

3. Chemical processing

4. Absorption

II. Digestive Systems: A Structural View (pages 798-805)

A. Digestive Cavities

B. Digestive Tracts

III. Types of Feeders (pages 797-798)

A. Suspension feeders

B. Deposit feeders

C. Fluid feeders

D. Bulk feeders

IV. Herbivores (pages 807-808)

A. Problems with Plants as Food

1. Indigestibility of cellulose

2. Low energy and nutrient yield

3. Self‑defense by plants

B. Body Size and Food Choice by Herbivores

C. Structures for Mechanical Processing

D. Chemical Processing and Digestive Symbionts in Mammals

1. Types of symbionts

2. Ruminants and their cud

3. Large non‑ruminant mammals

4. Small non-ruminant mammals

V. Carnivores (pages 807-808, 1058-1060)

A. Meat as a Food Source

1. High quality

2. Digestibility

B. Structures of Teeth

C. Behavioral Ecology of Carnivores

1. Searchers versus ambushers

2. Importance of learning

3. Gas Exchange and Respiratory Systems of Animals (CRM: Chapter 42)

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I. Introduction

A. Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oxygen Consumption

B. Anaerobic versus Aerobic Metabolism

C. Structures Necessary for Respiration

II. Mechanism of Oxygen Acquisition (pages 833-834)

A. Diffusion

1. Definition

2. Importance

B. Factors Affecting Diffusion Rates

1. Concentration differences

2. Area across which diffusion occurs

3. Density of medium

C. Oxygen Availability

III. Respiratory Surfaces (pages 826-828)

A. Sufficiency of Unspecialized Surfaces

1. Diffusion across body surfaces

2. Ventilation

3. Body size and the evolution of respiratory systems

B. Specialized Respiratory Surfaces

C. Countercurrent Exchangers

1. How they do not work

2. How they do work

3. General importance in biology

4. Example from fish gill

5. Carbon dioxide elimination

IV. Tracheal Systems in Insects (pages 828-830)

V. Respiratory Structures in Vertebrates (pages 830-832)

A. FishesB. Amphibians

C. Mammals

4. Evolution of Circulatory Systems: Structure and Function (CRM: Chapter 42)

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I. Introduction (pages 811-812)

A. Evolution of Complexity: Body Size and Body Cavities

B. Functions of Circulatory Systems

1. Transport

2. Communication

II. Structure and Function of Circulatory Systems (pages 812-814,817,819-820)

A. Basic Structural Units

1. Hearts

2. Arteries and arterioles

3. Venules and veins

4. Valves

5. Capillary beds

B. Capillary Function

C. Open versus Closed Circulatory Systems

D. Circulatory Circuits

1. Pulmonary

2. Systemic

III. Circulatory Systems in Invertebrates (page 812)

A. Mollusks

1. General pattern of circulation

2. Closed systems in Cephalopoda

B. Insects

1. Relation to respiratory structures

2. Vessels and blood tracing

3. Functioning of the tube heart

IV. Circulatory Systems in Subphylum Vertebrata (pages 812-816)

A. General Characteristics

B. Fishes

1. Gills and oxygen acquisition

2. Circuitry and heart structure

C. Amphibians and Reptiles

1. Lungs and oxygen acquisition

2. Circuitry and heart structure

D. Birds and Mammals

1. Circuitry

2. Heart structure

3. Functional significance

4. Analogy of systems

5. Vascular Fluids: Composition and Function (CRM: Chapter 42)

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I. Introduction

A. Functions of Circulatory Systems

B. Body Fluids

II. Composition of Blood (pages 822-824)

A. Plasma

1. Water content

2. Solutes

B. Cell Types

1. Erythrocytes

2. Leukocytes

3. Platelets

III. Oxygen Transport by Blood (pages 834-837)

A. Efficiency of Oxygen Delivery

B. Respiratory Pigments

1. Diversity of pigments

2. General function

3. Packaging of pigments

4. Jargon of physiologists

C. Functioning of Respiratory Pigments

1. Partial pressure of a gas

2. Oxygen dissociation curves

3. Factors affecting dissociation curves

4. Storage pigments

D. Special Adaptations for Low Oxygen Availability

1. Diving

2. High altitudes

IV. Carbon Dioxide Elimination (pages 835-836)

A. The Problem of Acidosis

1. Carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions

2. Buffering of blood

B. Elimination of Waste at Respiratory Surface

6. Immune System and Other Defenses (CRM: Chapter 43)

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I. Defense Against Pathogens (pages 840-844)

A. Non‑specific Defenses

B. Specific Defenses

II. The Immune Response (pages 844-849)

A. Definitions and Functions

1. Antigens

2. Antibodies

B. Cells of Circulatory, Lymphatic, and Immune Systems

1. Hemopoiesis

2. Differentiation of cell types

3. Lymphoid types

C. Lymphocyte Activation

1. Binding of antigen

2. Clonal selection

3. Effector cells and memory cells

III. Humoral Immune Response (pages 851-855)

A. B Cell Activation and Antibody Production

B. Antibody Structure and Function

C. Humoral Function

1. Neutralization

2. Agglutination

3. Precipitation

4. The complement system

IV. Cell‑Mediated Immune Response (pages 849-851)

A. Introduction

B. T Cell Activation

1. Major histocompatability complex

2. Presentation of antigenic determinant

3. Binding by T cells

4. Clonal selection

C. Cytotoxic T Cells

D. Helper T Cells

E. Suppresor T Cells

7. Water Balance and Excretion of Nitrogenous Wastes (CRM: Chapter 44)

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I. Introduction (pages 788-790)

A. Homeostasis

B. Body Fluids

1. Fluid compartments

2. Osmosis

II. Solute and Water Balance (pages 875-879)

A. Paths of Water Flux

1. Water gain

2. Water loss

B. Osmoconformers versus Osmoregulators

C. Physiologically Wet and Physiologically Dry Habitats

1. General definitions

2. Marine environments

3. Freshwater environments

4. Terrestrial environments

III. The Vertebrate Liver and Homeostasis (pages 873-875)

A. Structural Relationship to Circulatory System

B. Regulation of Blood Sugar Level

C. Production of Nitrogenous Wastes

1. Protein catabolism

2. Ammonium ions, urea, and uric acid

3. Relationship to environmental physiology

D. Osmoregulation and Nitrogen Excretion

IV. Osmoregulatory and Excretory Systems (pages 879-889)

A. Insects

1. Effects of an open circulatory system

2. Malphigian tubules

B. The Vertebrate Kidney

1. General structure

2. General function

C. Freshwater and Marine Fishes

D. Mammals

8. Temperature Regulation in Vertebrates (CRM: Chapter 44)

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I. Thermal Relations of Vertebrates (pages 865-866)

A. Why Temperature is Important

1. Range of temperatures on earth

2. Temperature tolerances of living systems

3. Thermal sensitivity of biochemical reaction

B. Homeostasis and Temperature Regulation

1. Value of regulation

2. Concept of heat balance

C. Paths of Heat Exchange for All Animals

1. Radiation

2. Conduction

3. Convection

4. Evaporation

D. Thermoregulatory Strategies of Animals

1. Ectothermy

2. Endothermy

II. Endothermy (pages 869-872)

A. Metabolic Rates and Heat Production

1. Metabolic rates and heat production

2. Shivering

B. Heat Conservation

1. Insulation

2. Piloerection

3. Whole animal behaviors

4. Circulatory system controls

C. Anatomical Correlates of Endothermy

D. Physiological Control of Temperature

1. Role of the hypothalamus

2. Precision of temperature control

III. Thermoregulation by Reptiles (pages 866-868)

A. Behavioral Thermoregulation

1. Exploitation of environmental opportunities

2. Behavioral mechanisms promoting heat exchange

B. Consequences of Thermoregulation

1. Body temperature variation

2. Relationship of body temperature to environmental temperatures

C. Evaluating Temperature Regulation

1. Anolis cristatellus and A. gundlachi

2. Geographical and ecological distributions

3. Using null hypotheses to demonstrate behavioral temperature regulation

9. Metabolic Rates and Energetics of Vertebrates (CRM: Chapter 40)

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I. Metabolic Rates of Animals (pages 784-786)

A. The Meaning of Metabolic Rate

1. The metabolism equation

2. How metabolic rates are measured

3. Resting metabolic rate

4. Relevance to ecology

B. Metabolic Rates and Environmental Temperatures

1. In ectotherms

2. In endotherms

3. Cost of homeostasis

C. Effects of Body Size on Metabolic Rate

1. SA:V relationships

2. Total metabolic rate versus mass‑specific metabolic rate

3. Size and metabolic rate

4. Effects on food needs of endotherms

II. Implications for Ecology and Behavior

A. Metabolic Rates and Energy Requirements

B. Ecological and Behavioral Consequences of Thermoregulatory Strategies

1. Food types

2. Hunting styles

3. Home range size and population density

4. Limits on body sizes

5. Times of activity

III. Metabolic Rates During Activity (pages 784-786, 1009-1011)

A. Resting versus Active Metabolic Rate

1. Cost of running

2. Cost of flight

3. Comparison of locomotor costs in vertebrates

B. Aerobic versus Anaerobic Metabolism

1. Biochemical pathways

2. Aerobic capacity

3. Burst activity and anaerobic metabolism

4. Oxygen debt

10. Nerve Cells and the Transmission of Impulses (CRM: Chapter 48)

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I. Introduction

A. Integration

1. Nervous system

2. Endocrine system

B. Functions of Nervous System

C. Complementary Structures

II. Neuron Anatomy (pages 960-964)

A. General Structure

B. Diversity of Structure

1. Sensory neurons

2. Motor neurons

3. Interneurons

C. Supporting Cells

III. Transmission Along an Axon (pages 964-970)

A. Polarization of Resting Axon

1. Ions and the nature of polarization

2. Maintaining ion concentration gradients

3. Resting state potential

B. Action Potential

1. Reversal of polarization

2. Mechanism of reversal

3. Restoration of resting state polarity

4. Restoration of resting state ion concentrations

5. The trigger for depolarization

C. Characteristics of Axonal Transmission

1. Self‑propagation

2. All or none response

3. Speed of transmission

D. Coding the Intensity of a Stimulus

IV. Transmission Between Neurons (pages 970-974)

A. Synapses

B. Transmission

1. Release of transmitters

2. Depolarization of receiver

3. Neurotransmitters

C. Synapses as Filters

D. Inhibitory Transmitters

1. Presynaptic inhibitors

2. Postsynaptic inhibitors

3. Principle of summation

11. Sensory Input and Integration (CRM: Chapters 48, 49)

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I. Sensory Systems (pages 993-1007)

A. Introduction

1. Function

2. General action

3. Sensory modalities

B. Visual Receptors

1. Evolution of light sensing organs

2. Camera eye

C. Sound Receptors

1. Occurrence in the Animal Kingdom

2. The human ear

II. Integration (pages 976-979)

A. Introduction

1. Sources of input

2. Nature of integration

B. Nervous Systems in Invertebrates

1. Nerve nets and radial systems

2. Bilateral nervous systems

C. Nervous Pathways in Vertebrates

1. General organization

2. Motor System

a. Autonomic system

b. Somatic System

III. Integration in the Brain (pages 979-984)

A. Evolutionary Trends in Cephalization

B. The Cerebral Cortex in Humans

1. Gross anatomy

2. Localization of functions

C. Interior Structures and Functions of the Human Brain

12. Motor Systems (CRM: Chapter 49)

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I. Introduction (pages 1011-1013)

A. Output Messages

B. Motor Effectors

1. Cilia and flagellae

2. Amoeboid movement

3. Skeletons and muscles

II. Components of Vertebrate Systems (pages 781-782, 1019-1020)

A. Bone

B. Cartilage

C. Tendons and Ligaments

D. Muscles

1. Smooth muscle

2. Striated muscle

3. Cardiac muscle

III. Muscle Action (page 1018)

A. Antagonism of Paired Muscles

B. Response of Single Muscles

1. Muscle fibers and innervation

2. Magnitude of muscle's response

3. Time course of contraction

4. Summation

IV. Molecular Basis of Muscle Contraction (pages 1014-1018)

A. Fine Structure of Striated Muscle

1. Fibers

2. Bundles

3. Sarcomeres

B. Sarcomere Anatomy

1. Distinctive zones

2. Distinctive biochemistry

C. Sarcomere Action

1. Telescoping of components

2. Changes in the zones

3. Sliding filament theory

4. Mechanism of sliding

5. Innervation and control of sliding