Civilization? Culture?

These words have two potentially contradictory meanings:

1. Relativistic. The idea of different civilizations or cultures, each with their own unique mores, institutions, histories, values, etc. In theory, at least, they can all be understood as different but equal.

 

2. Hierarchical and singular. As seen in the idea of "high culture," "modern culture" or a "civilized people." This denotes an area of refined tastes, technological development, respect for human life, lack of corruption, etc. In this sense, peoples and societies can be defined as having more or less civilization or culture.

These differences can be understood as the confused legacy of an imprecise term. But it can also be understood as an ideological discourse that helps explain, justify and mask global inequalities. It does this by presenting a universal standard and a theory of difference in the exact same concept. As a universal standard it creates a kind of norm that all people will necessarily want to achieve. As a theory of difference, it explains why certain people are unable to achieve that norm--for example, they have cultural values that are not "modern," they do not have institutions that can protect "civlized" society, etc. Thus inequalities within the global system can be explained as a result of local failings rather than as a structural part of the global economy or political system. At the same time, liberal values of toleration and equality can be maintained by insisting that all cultures are still different and equal, even if some are not so "developed." Both meanings of the word can also justify forceful intervention, for example if a culture does not respect the "civilized" values of human life or property, it must be persuaded or coerced into change.

History of the word "civilization."

The root "civil" comes from Latin, and the Roman idea of "civilian" or "civic": somebody who took part in the political life of the empire.

In 16th through 18th century Europe, "civilized" people were those with proper manners and breeding. A cosmopolitan civilized class spanned nations, in comparison to uncivilized peasants. It was linked to the idea of poli (politeness) and policé (to order--a word with roots that can be traced to "polish" or to"police.")

From a 1694 French Dictionary: "Civility: Decent, mild, and polite way of acting and conversing. . . Only peasants, people of crude upbringing lack civility. . . . Civilize: To render civil and polite, amenable and courteous. The preaching of the Gospel civilized the most savage barbarian peoples."

In the late 18th century, the idea of civilization grew popular in revolutionary France, bearing Enlightenment values of moral and scientific progress. It expanded to encompass a variety of processes, including education, comfort, arts and sciences, and commerce and industry.

In 1775, Diderot wrote, "Emancipation, or what is the same thing by another name, civilization, is a long and difficult work."

In the 19th century, the idea of "civilization" became entwined with scientific ideas. Some consequences of this include:

It often implied technological and economic progress, rather than proper breeding and morality. The wealthy "civilized" material life of Europeans--with its railroads, machines, complex table settings and excessive clothes--was placed in contrast with "uncivilized" Africans or native Americans. Charitable accounts of Asia would generally assert that Chinese or Indian civilization had once been dynamic but was now stagnant.

 

By the turn of the century, international law had developed a formal ideal of civilization. A state with institutons that were able to enforce the main provisions of international law, enaged in standardized interaction with other states in the "family of nations," and protect property and person according to international standards was considered to be a "civlized" state.

 

Civilization was increasingly seen as an evolutionary process, sometimes similar to "modernity." In material terms, increased civilization is often described in terms of a bundle of characteristic:

• Urbanization.
• Organized state religion, with complex theology and religious specialists (priests).
• Bureaucracy.
• Class distinctions (such as nobles, peasants, slaves or warriors)
• Writing
• Specialized artistic activity. Monuments.
• Large public monuments and public works.
• Armies

Simultaneously, the spirit of classification meant that the Enlightenment vision of progress towards one universal form of civilization began to branch out into the possibilities of several different civilizations. The pluralized concept of civilizations was often described in terms of culturalor spiritual "essences." These "essences" were often conceived as unchanging and even biological--in contradiction to the evolutionary view of civilization.

 

Romantic critiques such as Rousseau or Freud continued to mistrust civilization as a force of repression. For example, Baudelaire wrote that civilization is "a great barbarity illuminated by gas." Others engaged in more limited critiques, seeing particular activities like commerce orreligion as antithetical to the progress of civilization.

Being "civilized" continues to carry universal moral connotations today:

• Violence is often criticized as "uncivilized."
• Toleration and restraint is sometimes praised as "civilized."
• It is generally placed in opposition to nature.
• In phrases like "Western Civilization" it can imply a tradition of creative excellence (think CC).

The relativistic meaning of civilization has become common, and often tries to minimize qualitative judgements. As such, it is very similar to the idea of "culture," although it is sometimes unclear if civilizations should also be extended to nomadic or small tribal peoples. Sometimes, this use of civilization seemsto equate apples and oranges, when used to describe overlapping entities like Islamic civilization, African civilization, Egyptian civilization, Indian civilization and modern civilization.

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