Modernization Studies

In the 1950s, social scientists in the West (especially the US) were increasingly interested in understanding economic development. This interest was impelled by humanitarian interests, the optimism of the 1950s when it was thought that newly independent countries had great economic and political potential, and by the Cold War. It was thought that economically strong countries would be better partners for trade and investment, and would also be more likely to resist Soviet interference and communist insurrection.

The word "modernization" only became common in the 1960s, but its precise meaning is vague and varied. It is in many ways a consolidation of social science from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Although there is no single modernization "theory", influential works and ideas can be identified.

One of the major studies of modernization studies was W. W. Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. He divided modernization into five stages, using European economic history as his model:

• Traditional society characterized by limited production facilities, and a lack of science or systematic innovation. Change does not equal progress.
• Preconditions for Take-Off: The idea of economic progress emerges, and economic growth is even seen as necessary condition for national dignity and general welfare. There is investment in banks, transport and infrastructural industries. Education becomes more technical. There is a political drive towards a centralized national state. Productivity, however, remains low.
• Take-Off. Tradition is overcome and growth becomes a normal condition. Commercial and industrial classes gain political power. Innovation and investment in productive facilities becomes routine. Britain went through this stage in 1780-1800, France and US 1830-60, Russia 1890-1915, India and China 1950-60.
• Drive to Maturity is a long interval of 40 to 60 years of sustained and fluctuating progress. The economy is diversified, and reinvestment of at least 10% of profits into productive facilities continues.
• Mass Consumption includes the shift in leading sectors from raw material and infrastructural industries to to consumer goods and services. Middle class society emerges, and greater amounts of material surplus are allocated to social welfare and security. The US reached this stage by the 1920s, and Europe and Japan in the 50s. The Soviet Union was ready but failed to make the transition.

Other scholars went further than Rostow in drawing attention to the social, cultural and institutional requirements of modernization. Some common assumptions include:

• Evolutionary. The stages of development are common to all human societies. They are also irreversible.
• Holistic and systemic. Economic development inseparable from custom, institutions, culture, and attitudes. Change in one area will lead to change in other areas.
• National societies are the unit within which significant change takes place. A contiguous territory and homogeneous population makes it easier to actively mobilize modernization.
• Lateness is an advantage, because developing countries can learn from the examples of already developed countries, appropriate advanced technologies, and plan towards well-defined goals. Difficult and disruptive transition periods can be crossed more rapidly (some, however, argued that rapid transition created increased turmoil, that may even facilitate Communist sympathies).
• Colonialism and foreign aid are positive influences, helping to transfer technology and experience, provide guidance, reform traditional societies, and control or mitigate dissatisfaction caused by dislocation.
• Modern society is distinguished from static and isolated "traditional" society. The exact qualities of "modernity" differ from description to description, but it is understood as universal phenomena with common qualities that have included:

Industrialization.

Rational and centralized management of society and the environment.

Increased compartmentalization of life (work, leisure, family).

Economic and social interdependency.

Universal rather than particularistic social commitments--the decline of status categories and nepotism.

Markets, exchange, and the mutual flow of goods between towns and villages.

"Achievement orientation" and other attitudes that favor change and progress--dynamic rather than static societies.

Commitment to individual "freedom."

Organizations like unions, government bureaus and companies will take over social services and protection once provided by families.

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