#4: The Iliad, Books 18-23

Written by Ben Everett; edited by Jessie Handbury

Achilleus:

1. Achilleus’ decision: Achilleus’ furious reentry into the action of the story presents several issues for us to address. In Book 9, he claims to have two options: to remain in the fighting, where he will have a glorious death, or to return home, where he will grow old peacefully and die in obscurity (410-416). How might this choice be the basis of his decision to reenter the conflict? Why does Achilleus reenter battle? What kinds of motives/values is he acting on? Achilleus stresses in Book 9 (page 393) that honor is no longer of importance to him (a comment that may express his exasperation at the futility of the war itself). If honor or the heroic code are no longer motivating Achilleus, perhaps Patroklos’ death is. The suffering that Achilleus experiences with Patroklos’ death may awaken a visceral response to the Greek deaths that he has not yet had, motivating him to resume battle. It is equally possible that Achilleus has not come back to the fighting out of a sense of communal duty, of camaraderie and concern for his companions on the battlefield, but to selfishly sate the grief (and perhaps guilt) he feels over Patroklos’ death.

2. Briseis: At the outset of the poem, Achilleus is apparently in love with Briseis. After Patroklos’ death, however, Achilleus severely devalues her to the point of proclaiming he wishes she would have died. This change of heart seems extreme, even for Achilleus; why did it happen? Perhaps Achilleus loved Briseis in a childish way, as an object, a toy. When she was attached to his pride, she was everything to him, but when more pressing events required his attention (Patroklos’ death), she lost all meaning.

3. Isolation: While he is physically reunited with the Achaian army, Achilleus remains socially distant. In a society where part of the reconciliation process is based on the glory bestowed on a meal, Achilleus’ refusal to eat with his companions is a telling sign of his inability, or unwillingness, to reintegrate himself in the Greek community at this point.

4. Hubris…: On a purely physical plane, Achilleus’ refusal to eat demonstrates the extent of his grief: he simply cannot force food down his throat, even though he should. Denying food, however, has greater implications. Odysseus (often associated with the appetite/belly) points out that unlike gods, humans cannot go into battle on an empty stomach (396). Symbolically, Achilleus is refusing to be human. Throughout Books 20-22, as he “rages like the immortals” (Book 21, 314), Achilleus makes similar displays of hubris as he litters the field and floods the river with fallen Trojans. (Hubris is a god’s share. To have excessive hubris, therefore, is to put oneself in the place of a god.)

5…and brutality: At the same time, Achilleus is incredibly vicious, almost sub-human. Skamandros describes Achilleus as a “savage man/who is now in his strength and rages like the immortals” (Book 21, lines314-315). Paradoxically, the hero is simultaneously above and below the average man, at once godlike and animalistic. Achilleus’ brutality on the battlefield reaches a gruesome climax when Hektor—a spear through his throat—is begging for his mutilated body to be returned to his parents. Refusing, Achilleus replies that if he could, he would cannibalize Hektor. Here, Achilleus is almost inhuman. Cannibalism is repugnant in any society, but especially in the culture of The Iliad: if being left for the dogs and the birds is horrific, being eaten by a human enemy is unimaginable.

Hektor:

1. Hektor as a son: In Book 22, when Hektor’s parents plead with him to come back into city (pages 436-7), we see a shift from the public/communal virtues of war to the private/personal virtues of war. This scene emphasizes the philia among parents and children. Hektor’s parents supplicate him to come back into the city and act as a protector from within; here, for the first time, we see Hektor in the role of a son. Hekate’s speech indicates what it means to be a good son in this culture: a man who gives his father a decent burial, and who acts as a protector for his mother/wife/sisters so that they can give him a proper burial.

2. Hektor as a hero: Immediately preceding his death, when the fall of Troy is imminent, Hektor is tortured by shame and guilt. His guilt arises from an internal failing of ethics, his shame from the external imposition of humiliation. Despite the fall of Troy, and the general pro-Greek bias, the text gives honor to Hektor through various means, for—Achilleus being half immortal—he is often considered the mortal her of the poem. For instance, Hektor runs away from Achilleus in Book 22, and act that could be seen as cowardly. In the previous chapter, however, Apollo runs away from Achilleus as well. Thus, what appears to be cowardly behavior is actually, by precedent, divine behavior. Such instances—perhaps intentionally—prevent the reader from perceiving Hektor’s actions as unbecoming to a hero. In another such instance, Homer has Athena help Achilleus kill Hektor. Typically, Homer has the gods aid the Trojans to demonstrate Greek superiority, but here, the most glorious of the Achaians needs divine aid to kill Hektor. As opposed to Agamemnon, who blames divine delusion for his poor decisions (pages 394-395), Hektor takes responsibility for his faulty decisions and actions, giving him a sense of nobility and maturity. Finally, Homer uses the same language to describe the deaths of Patroklos (page 353)—who has the readers’ sympathy and admiration—and Hektor (page 444).

The Funeral Games:

1. Olympic Games: We should note that the first Olympic Games were held about the same time that The Iliad was written, roughly 750-775 bc.

2. Reconciliation, reintegration…: The funeral games act as a means of healing conflicts between the Greek heroes, and integrating Achilleus back into their midst. When Aias, son of Oileus, and Idomeneus argue about who is ahead in the chariot race (page 463), Achilleus steps in as the arbitrator. Again, Achilleus heads off a simmering conflict when he prematurely declares Agamemnon the winner of a spear-throwing contest, knowing he would lose face if the contest were played to completion (page 474). This is the first time we see Achilleus in the role of the mediator; it demonstrates both his personal growth and his re-incorporation into the Greek community.

3. ..and relaxation: Ajax—the fastest of the Greek heroes—loses a race when he slips in cow dung and tumbles to the ground, provoking laughter among the Achians. The moment is tense, for it could easily end in disgrace and fury. But Ajax laughs as well, demonstrating that this minor mishap is only dishonorable if he considers it dishonorable. In a refreshing and rare moment, the characters slip out of their rigid, stern personalities and see their actions with perspective and humor.

Battle Motives in The Iliad:

1. Mortal violence: The Achian motives include for fighting in the Trojan War include time, kleos, and, as Odysseus reminds us, war solidarity, fighting for one’s comrades. The Trojans fight mainly for philia.

2. Divine Violence: Why do the gods fight? This one’s a little more difficult to understand. Perhaps it’s because the gods don’t really have anything at stake. They are immortal. They are not concerned with satisfying basic physical needs. Ultimately, becoming involved in a battle is a way to stave off boredom. The gods also have incredible hubris. When they take a stance in the affairs of mortals, they stand the chance of losing face. The ferocity—sometimes approaching desperation—with which they involve themselves in the battles may result from their determination not to lose respect/honor among the other gods. The response of the modern reader is simply to laugh at the gods’ involvement in the Trojan War; it just seems ridiculous to a person who has been raised in a monotheistic culture that a god would behave like this. When the gods fight, it takes on an element of divine comedy, for they have nothing to lose. This stands in stark contrast to the human tragedy that characterizes the battles that rage among mortal men in The Iliad.