#10: The Histories / The Oresteia

Compiled by Matthew Mandelberg; edited by Nicole Hirsch

I. Final Comments on the Histories

1. "Custom is King of All" (p.169, paragraph 38)
In the Histories, it is established that unjust acts lead to retribution, war, or both. But, are unjust acts defined as such solely by custom? This would support the idea of moral relativism. Are there deeper, underlying principles that cut across all of humanity?
On page 169, Herodotus calls Cambyses crazy. Herodotus uses insanity or the gods to justify events when he has no other explanation. Herodotus finds that one of the few things that cut across all of humanity is ethnocentrism, or at least pride in one's own heritage above all others. Since Cambyses mocked his own moral code, he must be insane.
Our class went further to resolve that since the historic pattern of fratricide, incest, cannibalism, etc., all crimes directly or indirectly committed by Cambyses, lead to retribution, war, or both, they are the most universal taboos of humanity.
All of humanity have certain stimuli and must respond to them. These include sexuality, grief and death, the gods, etc., topics Herodotus touches upon for each culture. What differs is how individuals and different cultures respond to the various stimuli. There is physis, a universality of emotions and stimuli, and it is that which cuts across all of humanity and minimizes the idea of moral relativism.

II. The Oresteia

1. Background
Aeschylus--born 513 BCE, dies in 458 BCE. He fought at Marathon, a decisive battle in the Persian War, and it is after the Persian war that Athens reaches its height of power and prestige: afterwards known as the Golden Age of Pericles.

Athens--A Democracy, as opposed to Sparta, which has a representative, oligarchical government. The new form of government and the new state enforced justice system play a major role in the work. Democracy is replacing the aristocracy and this change is represented by the fall of the house of Atreus. During the book, justice is transformed from retributive justice, carried out and carried on by the aristocratic houses, to justice decreed by the government (now the people, represented by the chorus/jury of citizens in the Eumenides). In the Agamemnon, there is a big division between the chorus/polis and oikos/House of Atreus.

The House of Atreus--Tantalus begins the family curse by serving his son Pelops (Peloponnesian is derived from his name) to the gods. Demeter takes one bite off his shoulder before the realization is made. Tantalus is sent to Hades where he can neither eat nor drink but is tempted by both. Pelops's shoulder is reconstructed with ivory. Pelops continues the family curse when he wins his wife. His soon-to-be father-in-law will not marry off his daughter to Pelops unless Pelops beats his charioteer in a race, so Pelops bribes the charioteer. He then murders the charioteer when the charioteer comes to collect his dues. Pelops's first crime is convincing his host's servant to forsake his master. The second crime is murder. The madness continues onto the next generation with Pelops's two sons Thyestes and Atreus. Thyestes has an affair with Aerope, Atreus's wife, so Atreus feeds Thyestes his two children. It is worth mentioning that his son Aegisthus is later born to Thyestes through incest with his daugther. Agamemnon and Menelaos are Atreus's children.

Good government and sound justice should not be founded on family Trees, cycles of Violence, and escalating punishments. The House of Atreus is merely an exaggerated sample of all the inner strife, bad impulses, and tragedies that can take over a family's dynamic and wreak harsh political consequences on the community. The escalating punishments ensure the propagation of the family's curse

IIA. Agamemnon

1. Repeating Tropes/Motifs--Lions, sickening feasts, nets, contrasts of dark and light, robes, eagles, rise & fall of great dynasties, etc. It is worth noting that eagles begin as victims but become avengers and criminals, illustrating the concept that eye for an eye justice makes the whole world blind. The hunter becomes hunted by a new hunter. The new hunter then repeats the process with no end in sight.

2. The Watchman's Speech--"I speak to those who understand, but if they fail, I have forgotten everything." (p. 36, lines 37-8)
The watchman appears on stage lying flat or "dogwise" on the roof of the palace. This staging gives the illusion that the house is speaking and visually separates the palace, the oikos, from the chorus, the polis. This division reinforces the notion of aristocracy, which at this point in the Oresteia has power, versus democracy.

The speech is intentionally and deliberately obscure. Language can convey both meaning and lies. The meaning and the lies are aimed at different audiences. One's grasp of the meaning of the language depends on one's perspective and how well one reads the language (same is true of prophecies). Thus, it is fitting that Greek actors wear masks, forcing one to pay attention to words and not facial expressions.

There are a few notable examples of the doubleness of language and the difficulty of distinguishing authenticity and meaning. The "rumor of gladness," Clytaemnestra will raise will be a superficial show. Instead, death and despair will come. Similarly, the torchlight signaling Agamemnon's homecoming is not the welcome sight one might hope for or expect. It is fitting that Clytaemnestra is introduced as one who deceives with the truth, who has corrupted her lord's bed, and who is desexed. She is said to have a "male strength of heart" because she takes on the role of a male in her husband's absence: she rules and avenges her daughter.

It is worth mentioning how vulnerable the watchman is and how his fate is tied with Agamemnon. That is why he must be subtle.

3. The sacrifice and "Necessity's Yoke"

Agamemnon's crime, sacrificing Iphigenia, is described on pages 41- 2. As a result, Agamemnon sealed his own fate and became a slave to destiny. The mention of her robes and the irony of stopping her curses as she is murdered as though she were a sacrificed goat will be replayed in his own death. He, too, will be sacrificed.

5. Women's fault

Clytaemnestra is considered evil because she transgresses the gender line. Women are stereotyped as deceitful, hysterical, etc., but a woman pretending to be a man is a violation of a basic tenet of Greek culture. Fulfilling women's symbolic role includes Helen (her name means destroy) who is blamed for the Trojan War, Clytaemnestra for undermining both the legitimacy of her house and her kingdom, and even Cassandra who deceives Apollo into exchanging foresight for sex. Cassandra fails to fulfill her end of the bargain and is cursed to see all but to be believed by none.

5A. Agamemnon's Welcome

Clytaemnestra is not allowed to be masculine or feminine when she welcomes him. Masculinity, for a woman, is impermissible and femininity is deceitful. Masculinity would suggest her true intentions of dethroning him. Her femininity would not represent her true intentions. Agamemnon's entrance and welcome party on pages 61-3 is fraught with double meanings. She overdoes her welcome and makes it one worthy of "God." She needs him to commit hubris and uses his own character against him to succeed. She can only justify the murder if she has a public reason for executing him in addition to the private one. She needs him to commit sacrilege before the gods and the public. The murder rings of poetic justice (he sacrificed his daughter via deceit, as well) when she sacrifices him. Sure enough, he commits hamartia (missing the mark - an error in judgement). Clytaemnestra then bathes him, a comfort. Yet, she also puts him in a vulnerable position and purifies him for sacrifice.

It is important to mention that the intervention of Greek divinities in everyday human life has diminished and that "God" is singular.

5B. Cassandra

In Cassandra's speech, she calls out to Apollo. Though she serves him, he is the god of foresight, not lamentation. When she returns with Agamemnon to Argos, double meanings become clearer. On page 72, Cassandra sees through the troubles, mentioning Thyestes and the "double fury." Furies chase down those guilty of unpunished crimes against one's blood kin. One would be wise not to mess with a mother's furies. On pages 66-7, when Clytaemnestra beckons Cassandra, Clytaemnestra's speech is laden with somewhat transparent double meanings of eye for an eye justice and how the fates can see through all time. That will come back to bite Clytaemnestra. Cassandra is neither part of Atreus's family, nor the curse; therefore, she, like Iphigeneia, is an innocent sacrificial victim.

5C. Arguments with the Chorus

After the murder of Agamemnon, the chorus is addressed as though it were a body of judges. There is a cross-examination of the witnesses, Clytaemnestra and Aegisthus. While the actions, intentions, and rationalizations of each action is revealed, the courts do not yet have power to enforce the law. They must let Aegisthus and Clytaemnestra "soil justice, while the power is [theirs]" [90].

First, Clytaemnestra argues that Agamemnon must die as the "last blood for the slaughtered children." She is not the only one who has lost family due to Agamemnon's Trojan War, but she defends her sister Helen since she did not personally partake in the slaughter and attaches more blame to Agamemnon.

Aegisthus has a rougher cross-examination. Every other account of this story blames him, and his multi-generational defense does not hold much weight, but in this rendition, he is not the major force. Clytaemnestra is made to be the major player because a woman undermining and ruling the house emphasizes how upside-down this backwards justice is. Aeschylus must discredit the old system as he introduces the new one.

The straw that will break the old justice system's back is their cruel justice, that despite Clytaemnestra's and Aegisthus's beliefs, will only unleash more justice. There is no true conclusion.