Section A. Project Summary The Internet was created as what Norbert Wiener calls a "mixed system," a system with human and computer elements. It is crucial that the model being used to understand the development of this system take into account its actual nature and that new indicators be designed to correlate with this model. To develop indicators, there is a need to design those indicators using a model that is closely matched to the phenomenon or system that is being examined. This project will research and seek to document the root nature of the Internet as an interactive human- computer symbiotic communications system. The project will last for one year beginning June 1, 2001. The objectives of the project are: 1) To clarify the theory and appropriate examples of the empirical development of the Internet as a "mixed system." 2) To synthesize the theory and empirical evidence regarding the development of the Internet as a "mixed system." 3) To develop a model of the human-computer "mixed system." To create a prototype indicator. It is likely the prototype will be an online prototype. 4) To evaluate the potential for "mixed system" indicators to be implemented by the Division of Science Resource Studies and to identify what problems or questions may need further research. The expected outcomes of this project are to: o Describe the theory and empirical work of "mixed system" development in interactive computing and networking in the U.S. o Develop an accurate model of Internet development to correlate with the "mixed system" nature of the development of the Internet. o Use the model to develop a prototype indicator of the nature and development of the Internet as a "mixed system." o Evaluate the prototype indicator. Such research is of particular significance to: o The Division of Science Resource Studies to understand the nature of the research that has given birth to the Internet and what is needed for its further development. o The broader U.S. scientic, technical and policy community. o Scholars who are interested in understanding the nature of the Internet. o The public. Project outcomes will be documented in the following: o A report on the model and the prototype "mixed system" indicator. o A report for the Division of Science Resource Studies' internal use. o A report for the policy community on the nature and development of "mixed systems" and the implications for policy. Section C Project Description Interactivity Matters: Developing a Model and Prototype Indicator for the Human-Computer Mixed System, the Internet 1. Statement of Request and Project Objectives 2. Background 2A Research in Cybernetic Systems leading to J.C.R. Licklider's paper describing the human-computer partnership. 2B Licklider's essential focus on creating interactive computing to implement human computer symbiosis 2C The Internet as a Mixed System. Some Empirical Studies. 3. Designing a new form of "mixed system" Indicator. 3A Dimensions of the Internet as a "Mixed System" 3B Studies on the Internet as a "Mixed System" 3C Designing a Prototype Indicator 4. Methodology/Plan of Work 4A Project Tasks and Project Plan 4B Deliverables 5. Expected Significance and Dissemination of Findings 1. Statement of Request and Project Objectives This proposal represents a request of $59,580 to develop a prototype indicator to quantify the nature of the "mixed system" that is the Internet. This project will last for one year, beginning June 1, 2001. The requested funds will be used for the PI's salary for the year. The objectives of the project are: 1) To gather the theory and significant examples of empirical development of the Internet as a "mixed system." 2) To synthesize the theory and empirical evidence regarding the development of the Internet as a "mixed system." 3) To develop a model of this system and create a prototype indicator. It is likely this will be an online indicator. 4) To evaluate the potential for such indicators to be implemented by the Division of Science Resource Studies and to identify what problems or questions may need further research. The key expected outcomes of the project are developing an appropriate model to aid the study of the Internet and its development that more closely matches its actual nature than has existed thus far. This model will make it possible to create new and more appropriate indicators and these indicators will be able to draw on resources made available by the Internet itself. Such indicators are of particular interest to: o The Division of Science Resource Studies to understand the nature of the research that has given birth to the Internet and that is needed for the Internet's further development o The broader U.S. science, technology and policy community so they can understand why the information infrastructure must be an interactive infrastructure if it is to continue the development of the Internet that is most important to the scientific and technical community and to the public o Scholars who are interested in understanding the nature of the Internet and the potential of the Internet to serve as a scholarly support for their most difficult problems, problems that may both require heuristic and algorthmic activity o The public who need to understand the nature of the Internet to be able to contribute constructively to its further development .pa 2. Background 2A Research in Cybernetic Systems leading to JCR Licklider's Human-computer symbiosis paradigm Steering a ship implies guiding the future behavior of the ship on the basis of information concerning the past performance and present position of this ship itself in relation to some external course, goal or target. Karl Deutsch, The Nerves of Government, New York, 1963, p. 182. The NSF is authorized to provide direction for the course of scientific and technical development in the U.S. This responsibility is similar to that of the captain of a ship who must not only keep the ship on course, but also direct it toward a distant shore. Similar to the captain's challenge in steering the ship, the NSF is presented with the challenge that the nation's science and technology development is often done in an environment where one has never travelled before and where the course forward must be charted by the best possible indicators that one can utilize. Describing the situation of the captain whose ship is travelling in unknown waters, the political scientist Karl Deutsch writes: In such cases, the next step in the behavior of the system must be guided in part by information concerning its own performance in the past. Ibid. Deutsch refers to Norbert Wiener's use of the term "feedback". Quoting Wiener's description of feedback: This control of a machine on the basis of its actual performance rather than its expected performance is known as feedback, and involves sensory members which are actuated by motor members and perform the tell-tales or monitors -- that is, of elements which indicate a performance. Ibid., p. 182-183. Deutsch describes how indicators are dependent upon the model that has been developed to explore the phenomenon or system that the model is to help explain. Wiener's theory of cybernetics is particularly relevant to the charge and obligation of the NSF, especially with regard to the need to create new and increasingly more appropriate indicators of the state of computer science and technology resources and progress in the U.S. Deutsch explains how models are helpful in understanding a phenomenon that is otherwise difficult to understand. Knowing the laws or theories that explain a phenomenon will help to give a direction to researchers involved in scientific exploration or technical development. A researcher has many paths that can be chosen, and knowing an underlying law or theory will help to determine: 1) What is the data most worth getting? 2) What are the questions most worth asking? 3) What are the propositions most worth verifying or disproving? The U.S. scientific community has a tradition over 50 years of rich computer and communications research. These developments have led to important advances. But a line of connection needs to be maintained between the theory or science that has given birth to current computer developments and the rich body of practice that has grown from these roots. From an understanding of the scientific roots, it will be possible to construct a means of learning how the rich body of computer science practice will lead to enriching scientific theory. What are the essential questions and problems that are now important to pursue? What new and important developments can knowledge of the underlying laws unlock? Recognizing the value of knowledge of the theory or science that has led to an experimental research stage, provides the encouragement to look back at the theory that has preceeded this experimental stage.(1) What is the scientific theory that has given birth to the current Information Technology (IT) developments, particularly the development of the Internet? Crucial to an understanding of the scientific theory propelling IT developments forward, especially the development related to the Internet, is the science of communication, control and feedback which grew out of interdisciplinary studies in the 1940s and 1950s. Deutsch explains that a number of developments in diverse scientific areas "came to a head after 1940". (Deutsch, 84) The result was the discovery of "cybernetics as the science of communication and control" which "arose in response to a technological and social opportunity." (2) Key to this developing science was the identification of the problem of communication, control and feedback in autonomous systems. Researchers in the 1940s and 1950s became intrigued by the fact that there were significant analogies between machine servo systems and biological systems. These analogies suggested that there were common laws operating in biological and autonomous machine systems. In these systems a change of state in some elements seemed to cause a change of pattern in other and related elements. In machine systems, researchers had the great advantage that they could observe the changes and trace and retrace them, and the machine could be taken apart and improved upon. In biological systems this process was less possible. However, biological systems presented millions of years of complex and interrelated system development. At the heart of both these kinds of systems was the ability of the scientist to explore the servo mechanism, which is "the ability of a communications network to produce actions in response to an input of information and which actions include results from its own actions in the new information by which it modifies its subsequent behavior." (Deutsch, 88) Studying this servo mechanism phenomenon became the focus of the new science. What laws govern how its feedback process is carried out both functionally and dysfunctionally in biological systems? How can this process be developed in machine systems so they are functional? What are the common laws underlying these two systems? What are the differences that need to be understood? At one end, the spectrum of research explores how understanding the machine system can be helpful in understanding biological systems. The other end of the spectrum includes creating machines that could do the functions of biological systems. These developments, however, lead to still another focus for research, a focus developed by JCR Licklider, a psychologist and neuroscientist who had done his thesis studying mapping of the perception of sound in the cat's brain.(3) 2B Licklider's seminal paper and the essential focus on creating interctive computing to implement human-computer symbiosis In 1960, a seminal paper was published. The paper was titled "Man Computer Symbiosis" and it was written by JCR Licklider.(4) Licklider explains why in developing the computer, it is not desirable to focus on only biological or machine systems, but to create a system where the human and the computer are in a symbiotic relationship. This "mixed system" would be able to utilize the best of the human system and the best of the machine system, toward creating the most advanced intellectual capability. Licklider notes that there are already systems combining humans and computers, where the human is to do what the computer can't yet do, or where the computer is seen as the slave of the human. Licklider is not interested in such systems. He is interested in creating a new kind of system, a system where the human and the computer would both be dependent upon each other, similar to symbiotic systems observed in nature. Crucial to the creation of such a system, Licklider emphasizes, is the creation of an interactivity between the human and the computer partners of this symbiotic system. In his book God and Golem, Wiener discusses the importance of such human-mechanical systems. He calls such human computer systems "mixed systems." Wiener proposes that: Render unto the man the things which are man's and unto the computer the things which are the computer's. This would seem the intelligent policy to adopt when we employ men and computers together in common undertakings. It is a policy as far removed from that of the gadget worshiper as it is from the man who sees only blasphemy and the degradation of man in the use of any mechanical adjuvants whatever to thoughts. What we now need is an independent study of systems involving both human and mechanical elements. This system should not be prejudiced either by a mechanical or antimechanical bias. I think that such a study is already under way and that it will promise a much better comprehension of automatization. Wiener, God and Golem, The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, 1963, p.73. Licklider's and Wiener's interest in studying "mixed systems" helps to explain why Licklider identified "interactivity" between humans and computers as the essential aspect he was proposing. Licklider's vision for the development of the computer and of the human-computer relationship is his concept that the computer can augment human intellectual power, in a way similar to how earlier machinery could augment human muscle power. Describing the process of scientific discovery, Licklider writes: On the frontier, man must often chart his course by stars he has never seen. Rarely does one recognize or discover a complex problem, formulate it, and lay out a procedure that will solve it -- all in one great flash of insight. Usually it is necessary to go through several or many steps of planning -- sometimes progressing, sometimes retreating to mount a new attack, sometimes bogging down in what may seem to be endless iteration or recursion or search before hitting the path that leads to satisfaction. Heuristic and algorithmic activities are tightly intertwined. "Man Computer Partnership" in International Science and Technology, May 1965, pg. 20. Man-computer symbiosis, Licklider explains: (...)is an expected development in cooperative interaction between man and electronic computers. The man's aims are 1) to let computers formulate thinking as they now facilitate the solution of formulated problems, and 2) to enable men and computers to cooperate in decisions controlling complex situations without inflexible dependence on determined programs. "Man-Computer Symbiosis" Licklider proposes the role that each partner would play in the developing mixed system. In the anticipated partnership: Men will set the goals, formulate the hypothesis, determine the criteria and perform the evaluations. Computing machines will do the routinizable work that must be done to prepare the way for insights and decisions in technical and scientific thinking. The developing partnership will perform intellectual operations much more effectively than men alone can perform them. Ibid. 2C The Internet as a Mixed System. Some Empirical Studies. What has happened with regard to Licklider's objectives in the intervening 40 years? The purpose of this project will be not only to trace the evolution of Licklider's objectives in the writing he did, but also to look at the guidance these objectives provide toward evaluating what has happened in IT development, and particularly Internet development since the publication of his paper. The program Licklider put forward also helps to determine the types of indicators that can be created and how to create a prototype to begin determine how to study "mixed systems" like the Internet. In creating new forms of indicators, one must develop such indicators in correlation to a model which is closely related to the nature of the computer technology it is to help analyze. Describing the connection between a model and the creation of indicators, Deutsch writes: At this extreme, models become related to measurement. If the model is related to the thing modeled by laws that are not clearly understood, the data it yields may serve as indicators. If it is connected to the thing modeled by processes clearly understood, we may call the data obtained with its help a measure. Deutsch, p. 9. Since the Internet has been built as a "mixed system", it is crucial that the indicators used to quantify its development be indicators for "mixed systems". Such human-computer system indicators can disclose how such activity is developing and what if any obstacles can be identified with regard to continuing such development. It is expected, given the experience of the PI in related research, that this will involve making some of the work done available online and utilizing online and computer based tools whenever possible to do the research. In 1963, Licklider was asked to give the keynote speech at a conference on the creation of autonomous systems. The topic of his talk was "interactive" computing. Recognizing that there would likely be considerable bewilderment about why the keynote talk for a conference on autonomous systems would be about interactive computing, Licklider explains that there had been several stages in the development of human computer symbiosis and that there were lessons and developments in the process such as the development of public libraries of shared programs contributed by those in the research community. But the stage he was aiming for was one where there would be general purpose networks linking geographically distributed computers and users. And the network would make it important to foster collaboration and cooperation involving both humans and computers. Then computer scientists, like those researching autonomous systems, would have the most advanced scientific tools available for their research. Licklider maintained that this network fostering intellectual collaboration would be just the advanced scientific environment that would make it possible to make progress in what would otherwise be the most difficult of problems.(5) The National Science Foundation as the agency to support scientific and technical development in the US also needs a way to recognize how to provide the research community with the most advanced research environment. How has the Internet served in this capacity? What development is needed for it to continue in this most important function? These are significant questions that this project will help to answer. An analysis of the results of this research related to such questions will be part of the final report of this project. The project will strive to create a model that corresponds to the actual nature of the Internet. The project will design an prototype indicator, which is likely to be of a form that will utilize the online process. The project will draw on research done by the PI tracing the interactive and collaborative online development. 3. Developing a Model of the Internet as a "Mixed System" and Creating an Indicator Related to this Model 3A. Dimensions of the Internet as a Mixed System In an article he wrote for a conference in the early 1960s, Licklider outlines how there are three stages for the development of human-computer symbiosis. The first stage is where the human and the computer are closely intertwined so that the heuristic capabilities of the human can be interwoven with the algorithmic capabilities of the computer. This is the lowest stage of the human-computer symbiosis paradigm. For this stage it was crucial to establish human- computer interaction. The creation of time-sharing and of interactive graphics were the kinds of activities that were encouraged to achieve this stage of development. The second stage Licklider outlines is the stage where human-computer interaction has been achieved. This stage he characterizes as being represented by the creation of time-sharing communities like CTSS (Compatible Time Sharing System) which was developed as part of Project MAC at MIT in the mid 1960s. Licklider describes how the online communities that grew up as part of this stage were to some extent an unexpected development. He recognizes that there was community cooperation among users which could make it possible to create a software base to support human-computer interaction in diverse fields. Licklider believed that it was important to "develop techniques for facilitating and fostering a coherent community software effort." (6) Also Licklider felt that there was a need to consciously develop the techniques for cooperative technical development and experimentation to be able to develop the needed software in a reasonable time frame. The third stage Licklider describes is the stage that he looked forward to where networks of geographically distributed computers and people would develop as general purpose human computer systems. Licklider was writing when there were no such general purpose geographically distributed computer systems. In the past 30 years, however, such networks have been developed. The PI for this project has done studies of the role of the human partnership in developing these networks. These studies have, in good part, been the studies of mailing lists and newsgroups that have been archived and are available for such research purposes. The research done for this project will be able to draw on this empirical data to describe the third stage that Licklider envisions. It may also be possible then to propose what future dimensions may be envisioned from the empirical data already gathered. 3B Studies of the Internet As a Mixed System I-Existing Data Resources There are several significant raw data sets that can be used to study the Internet as a "mixed system". One data set is an archive of MsgGroup posts from 1975 through the 1980s. This is one of the oldest extent mailing lists. There is also an archive of Usenet and ARPANET Mailing posts from the 1981-1983 period. This was the period of the cutover from the earliest protocol on the ARPANET, NCP, to the protocol that would make it possible to create an Internet, to TCP/IP. This data set includes an archive of the TCP/IP Digest which documents human computer facilitated collaboration to help made the cutover from NCP to TCP/IP possible. Another data set is the NTIA online conference held in November 1994 by the US Department of Commerce. The Department of Commerce maintains the archives. This online conference was held to encourage citizen discussion of a vision for the future of the Internet and to discuss how to provide universal access to the developing network. There are already two papers studying this data which are published and available in the book co-authored by the PI. A more recent data set is a Usenet discussion in November 1998 on the nature of basic research activity in the US. The PI has this discussion available at her web site. I will assess the strengths and weaknesses of these data sets and their implications for the creation of a prototype indicator. 3C Designing a Prototype "Mixed System Indicator. We need to be able to determine which of the many characteristics and dimensions of the nature of the Internet as a "mixed system" are its most essential aspects. And we need to be able to develop ways that are both feasible and insightful, to measure these essential aspects of the Internet . The Internet is a cybernetic system. It is a self-modifiable quasi-symbiotic system designed to combine ever improving human and ever improving computer assets. (7) Fortunately, in a number of JCR Licklider's writings, he provides his observations and analysis of the important developments of the "mixed system" that was developing from the research in interactive computing that he initiated. In October 1962 he was joined began an Office of Behavior Science Research and an Office of Information Processing Techniques at the Advanced Research Projects Agency. The PI will study this work and evaluate its relevance to the project. In 1992, a researcher, Michael Hauben, did prototype research where he utilized the Internet to explore a series of questions about the experiences and means of human interactivity of users who were then part of the online community. His research led to the conceptualization of an online identity that creative users had assumed, the concept of netizen, of network citizen.(8) This project will review Michael Hauben's research and assess the methodology utilized and the conclusions reached. The project will review the previous studies done by the PI of important Internet mailing lists and Usenet newsgroups. Also there will be a literature search to determine whether there has been other such research. (9) The synthesis and analysis of these studies will set the basis to create a prototype indicator. The prototype indicator should help to determine how the online environment can support the scientific and creative user to create or discover new online functions and capabilities, especially those that will be useful to the scientific, scholarly and other creative communities of users. Ideally this project will be a way to determine the progess of Licklider's insight that it is most useful to consider the nature of interactive computing and the Internet as a means of catalyzing the continuing development of computer and information science.(10) .pa 4. Methodology/Plan of Work 4A Project Tasks and Project Plan This project will take one year to complete. It will begin on June 1, 2001. The work on this project will be conducted and completed by the PI. In addition there will be efforts to post some of the work being done at appropriate stages on the Internet and ask for input. The work will be posted on an area that is frequented by university students as this will encourage input and participation by students and others in the online community. A record will be kept of the online posts and the input that results and this will be part of the final project report. The work involved will be executed in 3 major states which are detailed below: Stage 1 - Literature review. The literature review will involve a traditional search of scholarly, technical and policy literature on the theory and science of cybernetics as it was developed in the 1940s and 1950s and descriptions of this theory like that in Karl Deutsch's Nerves of Government. Preliminary indications are that the work of Karl Deutsch is especially valuable in understanding these developments. JCR Licklider's many publications will be gathered and reviewed toward determining their relevance to this project. The PI has done studies over the past several years of online archives. These studies will be reviewed to determine if they will be helpful for this project. Also there will be a literature search of other literature to determine what research there has been studying online mixed systems and the methology used to do that research. Stage 2 - Determining the Model and Designing a Prototype Indicator It is not easy to describe the creative process of a researcher in designing something new. The best explanation is that this requires a willingness and persistence to search out whatever sources or methods may be helpful. Also, it requires experience and intuition. While the PI hasn't previously designed a new indicator for a "mixed system", she has 8 years of experience as a doing research about the development of the Internet, and utilizing online and other resources as appropriate for her work. Also she has significant experience exploring how the online process can be helpful in her research. Stage 3 - Creating a Prototype Indicator. Evaluating the Potential for "Mixed System" Indicators. The PI will prepare several forms of reports on the results of her research. They are detailed in section 4B. No special methodology will be used in this process. The ability of the PI to do this kind of work is demonstrated by her previous research, some of which has been published by the IEEE Computer Society in the book she co-authored Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet, IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, 1997. She has pursued internet related research for over 8 years and the results of her research have been disseminated around the world. The PI will also involve the online community in her research when appropriate and she will keep records of her experience in this regard. 4B Deliverables The primary expected outcomes of the project are (a) new insights and knowledge about how the science of cybernetics led to the empirical work initiating a program to create interactive computing and computer networking in the U.S. (b) the creation of a new model that is closely tied to Internet development and hence can be used to design new and appropriate indicators to assess the nature and availability of scientific and technical resources (c) a prototype indicator of the nature and development of the Internet as a "mixed system." These outcomes will be documented in the following deliverables: o A report on the model and online indicator that is prototyped in this project o A report for the Division of Science Resource Studies' internal use on establishing studies of "mixed systems", describing empirical examples and the implications of this research for understanding the nature of the Internet as a scientific resource and the implications toward providing for its continued development. o A public report for the Division of Science Resource Studies and the policy community on the nature and development of "mixed sytems" and the implications of this regarding continued development of the Internet. This will include a literature review of the theory and empirical experience, the explanation of the model and the indicator that has been developed as the prototype, and any other new knowledge that has been developed as part of this project. o A briefing on the project and its findings for the Division of Science Resource Studies staff and their invited guests. o Scholarly papers on the "mixed system" nature of the Internet, and on the experience developing a prototype indicator. o There will be a final grant report for NSF. A report on this project will be put online on the PI's web site. _________ 5. Expected Significance and Dissemination of Findings This project will explain an important and not hitherto understood aspect of the Internet. These findings are critical for scientific, scholarly, policy and public understanding of the scientific nature of the Internet and the vision that has made its development possible. The implications of this research are that the essential aspect of human-computer interactivity needs to be part of any plan for Internet development. There is a need for the development of an infrastructure to support the continued development and scaling of this interactivity. This would be an Interactive Information Infrastructure. Also there is a need for provision for the development of the kinds of resources both online and off that encourage such interactivity and foster the collaboration and cooperation that it makes possible. This project is pathbreaking because it is opening up a new line of research, a line that recognizes that the development of the Internet has benefitted from the human contributions as well as the technical development. This returns the vision guiding the scaling of the Internet to the vision of its founding, that of creating a means of intellectual power that grows from the close intertwining of human and computer capabilities. This is the kind of intellectual power most needed by scientific and scholarly researchers, but it is also the kind of intellectual power needed by the policy community and the public to be able to take on the hardest problems and make some headway with them. That is the great gift of the Internet to our society and it is a gift that it is too precious to ignore or lose. .pa Table 1. Project Plan Stage 1 Literature Review June 2001 - August 2001 (3 months) Search scholarly offline and online sources for literature and research related to the development of the "mixed systems". Stage 2 Data Collection September 2001 - November 2001 (3 months) a) For each source, determine if taking notes will be valuable to the project. b) Take notes and use online tool to develop synthesis of notes. c) Compile Bibliography and Literature Review. d) Do analysis of data and determine the conceptual direction of research. Stage 3 Prototype Indicator Development December 2001 - February 2002 (3 months) a) Create model and indicator. Gather data from its use. Stage 4 Preparation of Findings and Reports March 2002 - May 2002 a) Write report for SRC on creating a model to study "mixed systems". b) Document process of designing prototype indicator and experience using it. c) Provide briefing on the project for SRC and invited guests. d) Develop a public report. e) Write scholarly papers for publication and conference presentation on the project. f) Prepare final grant report for NSF. Put something online on PI's web site about project. .pa Footnotes (1) Deutsch explains that "The history of many fields of science shows a characteristic pattern. There is a time in which the science goes through a philosophic stage in its development, the emphasis is on theory, on general concepts, and on the questioning of the fundamental assumptions and methods by which knowledge has been accumulated. At the end of such a philosophic stage often stands an agreement on some basic assumptions and methods -- though not necessarily on all of them -- and a shifting of interest to the application of these methods to the gathering of detailed facts. The philosphic stages in the development of science define the main lines of interest, in the empirical stages these interests are followed up...." Karl Deutsch, Nerves of Government, New York, 1963, 3. (2) Deutsch explains that the science of cybernetics was made possible by advanced and parallel developments in neurophysiology and psychology, in mathematics, and in electrical engineering and by the growing need for cooperation among these and other scientists. Ibid. 84. (3) J.C.R. Licklider, "An Electrical Investigation of Frequency- Location in the Auditory Cortex of the Cat", The University of Rochester. Ph.D. thesis. (4) J.C.R. Licklider, "Man-Computer Symbiosis," IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, HFE-1 (March 1960): 4-11. (5) J.C.R. Licklider, "Man-Computer Partnership," International Science and Technology, May, 1965. (6) J.C.R. Licklider, J.C.R., "Interactive Information Processing," Computer and Information Sciences-II: Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Computer and Information Science held at Battelle, Memorial Institute, August 22-24, 1966, edited by Julius T. Tou, Academic Press, New York, 1967, 3. (7) In a a conference at MIT in 1961 on the future of the computer, Walter Rosenblith proposed: "My inclination is to substitute coexistence and cooperation for competition. The real challenge then consists in creating a novel, more powerful, self- modifiable, quasi-symbiotic system that will combine the assets which a long evolution has bestowed upon man with those which man's inventiveness has bestowed and will bestow upon the computers of tomorrow. I am therefore less tempted to stress what computers can do better than men than to envisage the benefits that we might derive from an intelligent division of labor between man and computer. Such arrangements are very likely to enhance human capacities in just those areas that are crucial to the functioning of a world whose technology is rapidly evolving....The promise of the cybernetic era resides in the fact that the new technology may prove capable of providing more than mere substrata for a rational flow of communication and control messages; it is likely that it will furnish some of the needed tools for the development of the sciences of man." Martin Greenberger, Computers and the World of the Future, MIT Press, 1962. 311-312 See also preface, chapter 1 and chapter 6 of Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet, IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, 1997. ix-xi, 3-34, 76-95. (8) See Licklider's writing on the importance of support for creative users to create the new online forms that will valuable to all once they are developed. Email is one such example of a new use created for the Internet which has been developed by creative users and is proving to be useful to all. At a conference at MIT in 1961, Licklider explained that though it was important to focus computer development on the education of students, that might not be the best focus to use initially to explore the role of the computer. His view was that "It may be better to consider first the whole domain of crative intellectual processes (which is, I think the proper role of the University.) and to ask what role the computer may play in those processes." (See Greenberger, 206-207) Licklider envisioned the potential of the computer as a partner in the exercise of these intellectual processes. Instead of viewing information processing as mainly concerned with handling data and its costs, he proposed it would one day be the field of a "basic and important science" and that a basic role of the development of the computer would be to catalyze the development of this new science. (9) See Chapter 1 of Netizens. (10) in Greenberger, 207. .pa Bibliography Karl Deutsch, Nerves of Government, The Free Press, N.Y., 1963. Martin Greenberger, ed. Management and the Computer of the Future, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 1962. Michael Hauben and Ronda Hauben, Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet, IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, 1997. (http://www.columbia.edu/~hauben/netbook) Hauben, Ronda, "ARPANET Mailing Lists and Usenet Newsgroups: Creating an Open and Scientific Process for Technology Development and Diffusion" http://www.ais.org/~ronda/new.papers/msghist.txt Hauben, Ronda, "Creating the Needed Interface: Computer Science and Government: ARPA/IPTO (1962-1986), Telepolis, 1999, Verlag Heinz Heise Germany. http://www.heise.de/tp/english/inhalt/co/5106/1.html Hauben, Ronda, "Early Usenet(1981-2):Creating the Broadsides for Our Day"http://www.ais.org/~ronda/new.papers/usenet_early_days.txt Hauben, Ronda, "From the ARPANET to the Internet: A Study of the ARPANET TCP/IP Digest and the Role of Online Communication in the Transition from the ARPANET to the Internet" http://www.ais.org/~ronda/new.papers/tcpdraft.txt Hauben, Ronda, "The Birth of the Internet: An Architectural Conception for Solving the Multiple Network Problem" http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/birth_internet.txt Hauben, Ronda, "The Internet: A New Communications Paradigm" http://www.ais.org/~ronda/new.papers/internet.txt Lang, Bernard, "Internet libere les logiciels," in La Recherche, February, 2000, 72-73. 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