earthquakes
- strain buildup -> rupture (slippage) on faults -> seismic waves propagate outward through Earth
- P waves, S waves, and surface waves; epicenter, focus (hypocenter)
- seismometer: heavy suspended inertial mass stays in place when ground moves under it
- distance to an earthquake from the S-P interval
- earthquake location (triangulation)
- the Richte) scale of earthquake strength
- frequency of large vs. small earthquakes
- first motion studies for determining orientation of fault and sense of fault motion
- local bedrock geology and earthquake damage risk

earth's interior
- how earthquake seismology is useful for determining the internal structure of the earth
- Moho, P and S wave shadow zones, low velocity zone, (~660 km discontinuity)
- major subdivisions of the earth from core to surface and the materials that make them up
- inner core, outer core, mantle, mantle asthenosphere, mantle lithosphere + crust = lithosphere
- the average thickness and the predominant igneous rock types (felsic, mafic) found in ocean crust
    and in continental crust
- evidence for interior composition:
   crust: we walk on it;
   mantle: xenoliths, ophiolites, seismic velocity
   core: must be high density material common in the solar system,
      and account for seismic velocity and fluctuating magnetic field
      iron meteorites: probable core of a probable planetesimal

historical development of continental drift and plate tectonics
- Why are there mountains? isostacy and geosynclinal theory (Dana)
- Continental Drift:
   Wegener and DuToit's paleoclimate indicators, truncated geologic features, far-flung fossils, and fit of the continents
- paleomagnetism: paleomagnetic evidence for continental motions
- Seafloor Spreading
   evidence: marine magnetic anomalies, distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes on the earth
   contributions of Vine & Matthews (1963), Pittman & Heirtzler (1966), Sykes (1967)

plate tectonics
- the types of plate boundaries and what happens (all the details) at each
   divergent (midocean ridges, continental rifts)
   convergent (ocean-ocean and ocean-continent subduction zones, continent-continent collisions)
   transform (oceanic transforms, continental transforms)
- how/why depth to seafloor increases away from midocean ridge (cooling profile)
- what kind of faulting (earthquakes) generally occurs at each type of boundary
- hotspots: more or less stationary mantle plumes
- deep ocean trenches, Benioff zones and volcanic arcs
- primary earthquake belts on the Earth and zones where igneous (volcanic) activity is concentrated
- direct driving forces of plate motions: gravity -> ridge push, slab pull
- general indirect cause of plate motions: convective cooling of the mantle
be able to sketch simple 2D profiles or maps showing what happens at midocean ridges, subduction zones, oceanic transforms

groundwater
- the hydrologic cycle: precipitation = runoff + infiltration + evapo-transpiration
- porosity, permeability
- zone of aeration, zone of saturation, water table, aquicludes, cone of depression, drawdown
- typical permeable materials that make good aquifers: sand, gravel, sandstone, limestone
- impermeable aquiclude materials: clay, shale, joint-free igneous and metamorphic rocks
- water wells, how they work
- relationship of groundwater and surface water (surface streams, lakes and ponds, swamps)
- groundwater - surface water interaction: gaining and losing streams (recharge and discharge)
- landfills (garbage dumps) and our groundwater supply; sanitary landfills
- non-point sources of groundwater pollution: lawn (& golfcourse) chemicals
- land subsidence from over-pumping
- saltwater intrusion
be able to draw profiles of the groundwater system

streams
- the work of streams: erosion, transport, deposition
- stream transport - bed load, suspended load, dissolved load
- relationship of stream velocity and discharge to competence and capacity
- stream hydrographs (plotting discharge vs. time following a rain event)
      why does it take time for the stream discharge to increase following a rainstorm?
      why does the stream's discharge not decrease to zero eventually after a period of no rain?
- stream drainage networks (just recognize that streams are organized in networks)
- youthful and mature stream profiles
- meandering streams: velocities across a bend -> point bars, cut banks, oxbow bends and lakes
- stream deposits: point bar sands -> sandstone, flood deposited muds -> shale
- floods and sediment transport (most transport occurs during floods)
- floodplains, valley walls, natural levees, stream terraces
be able to draw profile and map views of streams and stream valleys

coastal processes
- waves and tides
- size of waves determined by wind speed, duration, and fetch
- crest, trough, wavelength (L)
- orbital motion of water as wave passes, decreases to zero at depth of L/2
- what happens to a wave as it approaches shore (when water depth < L/2)
- breakers, swash, backwash
- beach profile: shoreface, berm, dune
- winter/summer profiles
- longshore drift and longshore currents
- tides:
   gravitational tug of moon and sun (less important) forms tidal bulges facing moon and sun
   centrifugal acceleration of Earth about Earth/moon and Earth/sun center of mass forms opposing bulges
   2 high & 2 low tides per day in most places
   spring tides (full & new moon), neap tides (first & last quarter moon)
   highest high tides at spring tides when Earth nearest moon (& sun)
- coastal erosion & sea level rise
- effects of groins and seawalls
- beach renourishment