The word kakun is composed of two Chinese ideographs, the first meaning “house,Eand the second meaning “codeEor “precept.Enbsp; As reflected in the ideographs, the kakun functioned as moral guides, handed down from the head of the house or clan to younger males. In many cases the kakun were meant to serve as ethical and behavioral guidelines for the sons or heirs of the writers and often reflect concerns regarding the prosperity and the continuity of the clan. Even though some kakun have been found in connection with regents and other agents of the Imperial family, most of the writers and readers of kakun were members of military households, especially after the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate (1185-1333). The writing of house codes prior to the Tokugawa period was generally limited to persons of high authority, and it was only during the Tokugawa period that kakun from the houses of merchants and wealthy peasants began to appear.
The kakun are considered important historical documents. They provide insights into how the warrior saw himself and his function in society. Scholars have also been interested in the relationship between kakun and the daimyo’s law especially as it pertains to the development of law during the Sengoku period (1460-1560). A chapter in the book Japan Before Tokugawa explores this relationship and suggests that due to the influence of kakun a tone of morality found its way into the formal law, in respect to both the daimyo’s house and the general population (103).
While many medieval Japanese texts address warriors in the context of historical narratives, the house codes, which were written by the warriors themselves, represent a less explored genre that help illuminate warrior ideals. And although the word bushido may not be mentioned in any of them, they do, in essence, reflect the way of the warrior both concretely and abstractly.
English Translations
Ideals of the Samurai: Writings of
Japanese Warriors translated by William Scott Wilson (Santa Clarita: Ohara
Publications, 1982)
Unlike many other publications of warrior-related
literature, Wilson’s Ideals of the Samurai has received little exposure.
Twelve different samurai who lived between the 12th and 17th centuries wrote
the kakun translated in this book. Many of them have never
before been translated. Wilson’s introduction includes a concise history
of the Japanese warrior’s emergence. Although Wilson does not give
adequate information about the kakun as a genre, the care and detail
that he put into the introduction make the twelve documents, written over
a period spanning more than five hundred years, stand together as a cohesive
work. Wilson’s work is likely to be of the most use for those interested
in the samurai’s code of ethics and how the warriors saw themselves.
The book also includes short biographies of each of the writers, some of whom were daimyo, heads of clans, vassals, generals, and members of the shogunate. All of the twelve documents include moral or ethic codes, which reflect the personal concerns of the individual authors. Having some background information about each author allows the reader to develop an understanding of how each of the authorsEpolitical positions and aspirations are represented in their writings. Each of the translated documents represents a slightly different view of the ideals of the warrior. Despite the fact that these texts were written over a five hundred-year period and vary in style and content, commonalities do exist. Below are quotes from Wilson’s translations of these kakun with links to information about their authors and a synopsis of the documents. Where relevant, information about other English translations have been included and designated by an asterisk (*).
Kakun Quotations
“If one will fix his heart in such a way and assist the world and its people, he will have the devotion of the men who see and hear him.Enbsp;The Message of Master GokurakujiEa NAME="r">Hojo Shigetoki (1198-1261)
“In this world of uncertainty, ours should be a path of discipline.Enbsp; The Chikubasho—Shiba Yoshimasa (1350-1410)
“Just as water will conform to the shape of the vessel that contains it, so will a man follow the good and evil of his companions.Enbsp; The Regulations of Imagawa Ryoshun—Imagawa Sadayo (1325-1420)
“Even if one has learned all the sayings of the sages and saints, he should not insist on them obstinately.E The Recorded Words of Asakura Soteki—Asakura Norikage (1474-1555)
“One should always be genteel in his speaking. A man shows his inmost self by a single word.EThe Twenty-One Precepts of Hojo Soun—Hojo Nagauji (1432-1519)
“A general of great merit should be said to be a man who has met with at least one great defeat.EThe Recorded Words of Asakura Soteki—Asakura Norikage (1474-1555)
“Learning is to a man as the leaves and branches are for a tree, and can be said that he should simply not be without it.Enbsp; The Iwamizudera Monogatari—Takeda Shingen (1521-1573)
“One’s soldiers should not yell abuse at the enemy. An old saying goes ‘Arouse a bee and it will come at you with the force of a dragon.’” Opinions in Ninety-Nine Articles—Takeda Nobushige (1525-1561)
“No matter whether person belongs to the upper or lower ranks, if he has not put his life on the line at least at least once he has cause for shame.Enbsp; Lord Nabeshima’s Wall Inscriptions—Nabeshima Naoshige (1538-1618)
“I will stand off the forces of the entire country hereEnd die a resplendent death.Enbsp; The Last Statement of Torii Mototada—Torii Mototada (1539-1600)
“Having been born into the house of the warrior, one’s intentions should be to grasp the long and short swords and die.Enbsp; The Precepts of Kato Kiyomasa—Kato Kiyomasa (1562-1611)
“The arts of peace and the arts of war
are like to wheels of a cart which, lacking one, will have difficulty in
standing.Enbsp; Notes on Regulations—Kuroda Nagamasa (1568-1623)
The Message of Master Gokurakuji—Hojo Shigetoki (1198-1261)
The Seventeen Articles of Asakura Toshikage—Asakura Toshikage (1428-1481)
In 1560, Chosokabe succeeded to the family leadership and immediately began a series of military campaigns. By 1585, he had brought the entire island of Shikoku under his power. As the hegemon of Shikoku, Chosokabe was confronted with the increasing strength of the warlords from the main island of Honshu, especially Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Although Nobunaga was a serious threat, his death came before he was able to act on his plan to attack Chosokabe. Hideyoshi’s forces were too great for Chosokabe to overcome, and in 1583 he pledged allegiance to Hideyoshi, who restricted him to his home domain of Tosa. Chosokabe spent the rest of his years fighting Hideyoshi’s wars. He led his forces into Kyushu in the name of Hideyoshi where, in the battle against Shimizu, he lost his favorite son. Again, he led his forces behind Hideyoshi in the battle of Odawara (1590) and in the Korea campaigns of 1592 and 1597.
Chosokabe’s Hundred Article Code reflects his concern with Buddhist concepts. Like his father, Chosokabe took Buddhist vows in his old age. The code also reflects his concern with Confucian values, which represented the moral ideal in feudal Japanese society. The document was intended for Chosokabe’s retainers and was not meant for the general public. It contained guidelines for proper behavior while in office and also prescribed detailed regulations regarding officials, priests, and samurai. Twenty-nine articles dealt with legalities, fifteen were concerned with taxes, another fifteen dealt with official procedures, and six were devoted to Buddhist priests. Chosokabe’s code survived well into the Tokugawa period. His cause survived as a symbol of anti-shogun resistance, which later motivated many samurai involved in the Meiji Restoration.