Next the chapter provided an overview of how norms and norm-referenced scores are derived by standardized test -makers. Norms provide a structured framework for us to make norm referenced interpretations of raw scores. The chapter outlined how standardization samples are obtained by developers to create Norms Tables. Five major types of derived scores were described, starting with normalized z-scores and moving to other transformed scores, such as the T-score, NCE, other Standard Scores, Percentile Ranks, Percentile Bands, Stanines, Grade-Equivalents and Scaled Scores. Interpretative guidelines for these scores were given.

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